In this project very innovative for manufacture the brick in paper and other materials. so this project name is PAPER BRICK. if u need any idea or discuss to improve this project join with my blog.
Friday, 20 June 2014
INTRODUCTION
While
taking the building materials, brick remains one of the most important building
material in India. Notably the Indian brick industry, which is the second
largest producer in the world, next only to china, has more than 1,00,000
operating units, producing about 140 billion bricks annually. The industry has
an annual turnover more than Rs.140 billion. And it is one of the largest
employment-generating industries employing millions of workers.
The
conventional brick making is an energy intensive process. In India fuel cost
alone account for almost 30 - 40% of the production cost. The conventional
brick making practice consumes huge quantities of fuel in terms of coal,
firewood, and other biomass fuel. It is estimated that the Indian brick
industry consumes more than 24 million tones of coal annually, in addition to
several million tones of biomass fuels. Kilns are also nutrious as highly
polluting establishments, affecting not just flora, fauna, but also posing
threats to human health.
In
this project, the above problems were solved by introducing an alternative,
cost effective, eco-friendly innovative building bricks. These alternative
bricks were made with papercrete. Papercrete is a tricky term. The name seems
to imply a mix of Paper and concrete, hence Papercrete. Different types of
Papercrete contain 50 – 80 % of waste paper. Papercrete additives can be
Portland cement, sand, fly ash.
In this project sand, cement, and waste
materials like paper, fly ash, were mixed in various proportions and a suitable
proportion which gave more strength, less cost, inflammable, less water
absorbance and more eco friendly was found out. And the character of that
successive proportions were analysed in this project.Objectives
The major Objective of the project
is replacing the costly and scarce conventional building bricks by an
innovative and alternative building bricks, which satisfies the following
characteristics,
o
Required strength
o
Cost effective
o
Environmental friendly
o
Less weight
o
Inflammable
o
Less Water absorbent
o
Easily available
LITERATURE REVIEW
First of all various books and
journals were collected for reference and were studied before starting the
project work for having an idea about how the project should be. In this
project an alternative building bricks are introduced. So, first the basic and
essential characteristics of bricks were studied. And the details about the new
technique what was used in this project i.e., papercrete, was collected from
the journals.
BRICKS
The
bricks are obtained by molding clay in a
rectangular blocks of uniform size and then by drying and burning the blocks.
As the bricks are of uniform size, they can be properly arranged and further,
as they are in lightweight, no lifting appliance is required for them. The
common brick is one of the oldest building material and it is extensively used
at present as a leading material in construction. In India, process of brick
making has not changed since many centuries except some minor refinements.
There has been hardly any effort in our country to improve the brick-making
process for enhancing the quality of bricks.
A
brick is generally subjected to the following tests to find out its suitability
for the construction work.
Absorption
A
brick is taken and it is weighed dry. It is then immersed in water for a period
of 16 hours. It is weighed again and the difference in weight indicates the
amount of water absorbed by the brick. It should not, in any case, exceed 20%
of weight of dry brick.
Crushing Strength
The
crushing strength of a brick is found out by placing it in a compression-testing
machine. It is compressed till it break, as per BIS: 1077-1957, the minimum
crushing strength of brick is 3.50 N/mm2 .The brick with crushing
strength of 7 –14 N/mm2 are graded as ‘A’ and those having above 14
N/mm2 are graded as ‘AA’.
Hardness
In
this test, a scratch is made on the brick surface with the help of fingernail.
If no impression is left on the surface, the brick is treated to be
sufficiently hard.
Presence of soluble salts
The
soluble salts, if presents in brick will cause efflorescence on the surface of
bricks. For finding out the presence of soluble salts in brick, it is immersed
in water for 24 hours. It is then taken out and allowed to dry sunshade. The
absence of grey or white deposits on its surface indicates absence of soluble
salts.
If
the white deposit covers about 10% surface, the efflorescence is said to be
slight and it is considered as moderate, when the white deposit cover about 50%
surface. If grey or white deposits are found on more than 50% of surface, the
efflorescence becomes heavy and it is treated as serious, when such deposits
are converted into powdery mass.
Shape and size
In
this test, a brick is closely inspected. It should be of standard size and its
shape should be truly rectangular with sharp edges. For this purpose, 20 bricks
of standard size (190mm X 90mm X 90mm) are selected at random and they are
stacked length wise, along the width and along the height.
For
a good quality brick, the results should be within the following permissible
limits:
Length:
3680mm to 3920mm
Width
: 1740mm to 1860mm
Height:
1740mm to 1860 mm
Soundness
In
this test, two bricks are taken and they are struck each other. The bricks
should not break and a clear ringing sound should be produced.
Structure
A
brick is broken and its structure is examined. It should be homogeneous,
compact and free from defects such as holes, lumps etc.,.
PAPERCRETE
Papercrete
is a tricky term. The name seems to imply a mix of paper and concrete, hence
papercrete. But more accurately, only the Portland cement part of concrete is
used in the mix-if used at all. Arguably, it could have been called
“paperment”. Papercrete may be mixed in many ways. Different types of
papercrete contain 50-80% of waste paper. Up to now, there are no hard and fast
rules, but recommended standards will undoubtedly be established in future.
The
basic constituents are water nearly any kind of paper, card board, glossy
magazine stock, advertising brochure, junk mail or just about any other type of
“Mixed Grade” paper is acceptable. Some types of paper work better than others,
but all types of work, newsprint is the best. Water proofed paper and card
board, such as butcher paper, beer cartons etc., are harder to break down in
water. Catalogs, magazines and other publications are fine in and of
themselves, but some have a stringy, rubbery, sticky spine, which is also water
resistant. Breaking down this kind of material in the mixing process can’t be
done very well. Small fragments and strings of there materials are almost
always present in the final mix. When using Papercrete containing the unwanted
material in a finish, such as stucco or plaster, the unwanted fragment some
times show up on the surface, but this is not the serious problem.
Papercrete’s additives can
be,
o
Cement
o
Sand
o
Fine earth
o
Clay
o
Fly ash
o
Powdered glass
o
Rice husk ash
Papercrete is having the
following derivatives,
o Fibrous
concrete
o Padobe
o Fidobe
Fibrous concrete
Fibrous concrete
is a mixture of paper, Portland cement, water. There are no harmful by-products
or excessive energy use in the production of papercrete. While it can be argued
that the Portland cement is not environmental friendly, it is not used in all
types of papercrete, and when it represents a fairly small percentage of cured
material by volume. One of the most advantageous properties of papercrete is
the way paper fibres hold the Portland cement or perhaps the way Portland
cement adheres to paper fibres. When the water added to the paper and Portland
cement drains from the mix, it comes out almostly clear. There is no messy and
eco-unfriendly cement sediment left on the ground, running in to waterways
etc., papercrete can be produced using solar energy. The only power needed is
for mixing and pumping water. Its R-value is rated between 2.0-3.0 per inch.
Since walls in a one or two storey house will be 12-16 inches thick, the
long-term energy savings of building with papercrete will be a bonanza for the
homeowner and the environment.
Padobe
Padobe has no Portland cement. It is a mix of paper,
water, earth with clay. Here clay is the binding material instead of using
cement, earth is used in this type of brick. This earth should have clay
content more than 30%. With regular brick, if the clay content is too high the
brick may crack while drying, but adding paper fiber to the earth mix
strengthens the drying block and give some flexibility which helps to prevent
cracking.
Fidobe
Fidobe is like padobe, but it may contain other fibrous
material.
ECO – FRIENDLY
Phenomenal
growth in the construction industry that depends upon the dependable resources. Production of building materials lead to irreversible environmental impacts.
Using Eco-friendly materials is the best way to build a Eco-friendly building.
Eco-friendly, describes a product that has been designed to do the least
possible damage to the environment. US-EPA programme defines, Eco-friendly
products or services that have a lesser or reduced effect on human health and
the environment when compared with competing products or services that serve
the same purposes.
MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS
Materials are the important
criteria to produce a product. The materials should be easily available and
eco-friendly. In this project waste materials were utilized to produce building
bricks. The following materials were used in this project
o
Paper
o
Fly ash
o
Sand
o
And ordinary Portland cement
The characteristics of these materials are as
follows.
PAPER
India’s per
capita consumption of paper is around 4.00 Kg.. With the expected increase in
literacy rate and growth economy, an increase in per capita consumption of
paper is expected. The demand for upstream market of paper products like,
tissue paper, tea bags, filter paper, lightweight online-coated paper, medical
grade coated paper etc., is growing up. Due to this tremendous increase in use
of paper, 1600 m3 papers are wasted in India per day. Even though
the waste papers are recycled in paper industry only 29% of waste paper is
recycled. It is low in comparison to the global average of 36%. It is the major
waste in India. So only the paper was selected as an important material in this
project. The following are the properties of the paper, which was used in this project.
Chemistry
Paper is principally wood cellulose,
which is considered as fibrous material. Cellulose is the second most abundant
material on earth after rock. It is the main component of plant cell walls, and
the basic building block for many textile and for paper. Cellulose is a natural
polymer, a long chain of linked sugar molecules made by the linking of smaller
molecules. Fig shows the cellulose hydrogen bonds..png)
Cellulose hydrogen bonds
The links in the cellulose chain
a type of sugar, ß-D glucose. The cellulose chain bristles with polar –OH
groups. These groups form many hydrogen bonds with –OH groups on adjacent
chains, bundling the chain together. The chains also pack regularly in places
to form hard, stable, crystalline regions that give the bundled chains even
more stability and strength.
.png)
Fig shows the microscopic view
of cellulose structure. It shows the network of cellulose fibres and smaller
offshoots from the fibres called fibrils.
Physical behaviour
Even though the chemical behaviour of the
paper is suitable for papercrete, the physical behaviour of the paper is also
taking effect in the physical behaviour of papercrete. The tensile strength of
the paper also seems to be sufficient for the task. When applying a pull on a
single sheet of paper on its edges, it has a great strength. Ripping a piece of
paper is much easier than pulling it part. So it denotes the shear strength of
paper is not as great as its tensile strength. But, when ripping the hundreds
of paper it is not an easy task. So, it shows that it has more shear strength.
FLY ASH
With the boom population and
industrial growth, the need for power has increased manifold. Nearly73% of
India’s total installed power generation capacity is thermal, of which 90% is
coal-based generation, with diesel, wind, gas and stream making up the rest.
Thermal power generation through coal combustion produces minute particles of
ash that causes serious problem. Commonly known as fly ash. These ash particles
consists of silica, alumina, oxides of iron, calcium, magnesium and toxic heavy
metals like lead, arsenic, cobalt, and copper.
The
80-odd utility thermal power stations in India use bituminous coal and produce
large quantities of fly ash. According to one estimate up to 150 million tones
of fly ash will be produced in India during the year 2000. It is expected that
the quantity of fly ash available will touch the figure of 1000 million KN per
annum. The disposal of such a large quantities of fly ash is certainly a
gigantic problem and a matter of national concern. This poses problem in form
of land use, health hazards, and environmental dangers.
The
prevalent particle is to dump fly ash on wastelands, and this has lain to waste
thousands of hectares all over the country. To prevent the fly ash from getting
airborne, the dumping sites have to be constantly kept wet by sprinkling water
over area. And in India, the sites are not lines and leads to seepage,
contaminating groundwater and soil. It lowers the soil fertility and
contaminates surface and ground water as it can leach into subsoil. When fly
ash gets into the natural draining system, it results in siltation and clogs
the system. It also reduces the pH balance and portability of water. Fly ash
interferes with the process of photosynthesis of aquatic plants and thus
disturbs the food chain.
Properties
Fly
ash is a residue resulting from combustion of pulverized coal or lignite in
thermal power plants. About 80% of total ash is in finely divided form, which
is carried away with flue gases and is collected by electrostatic precipitator
or other suitable technology. This ash is called as dry ash or chimney or
hopper ash. The balance 20% of ash gets collected at the bottom of the boiler
and is referred as bottom ash. Fly ash is very fine comparable to cement,
however some particles have size less than 1 micron in equivalent diameter
Chemical composition of Fly Ash.
|
Components
|
Percentage
(%)
|
|
Silica as Sio2
|
35-59
|
|
Iron as Fe2O3
|
0.5-2
|
|
Alumina as Al2O3
|
20-33
|
|
Calcium as CaO
|
5-16
|
|
Magnesium as MgO
|
1-5.5
|
|
Sulphate as So3
|
0.5-1.5
|
|
Loss on ignition
|
1-2
|
Above
the Table gives the chemical component of Fly ash. Fly ash posses pozzolana
characteristics. Pozzolana are defined as silicious and aluminous materials,
which in themselves posses little or no cementitious value but, will in finally
divided from and in the presence of moisture chemically react with calcium
hydroxide at ordinary temperature to form compounds possessing cementitious
properties. So this pozzolanic material can be used for the manufacture of
cement, concrete, and lime/cement based bricks/blocks.
CEMENT PROPERTIES
The cement is obtained by burning
at very high temperature a mixture of calcareous and argillaceous materials.
The mixture of ingredients should be intimate and they should be in correct
proportion. The calcined product is known as clinker. A small quantity of
gypsum is added to the clinker and it is then pulverized in to very fine
powder, which is known as cement.
Among
the various types of cement, ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is by far the most
important type of cement. The OPC was classified in to three grades, namely 33
grade, 43 grade and 53 grade depending upon the strength of the cement at 28
days when tested as per IS 4031-1988. If the 28 days strength is not less than
33 N/mm2, it is called as 33-grade cement.
The chemical composition of ordinary Portland cement is tabulated below
|
Oxide
|
Percentage (%)
|
|
CaO
|
60-67
|
|
SiO2
|
17-25
|
|
Al2O3
|
S3-8
|
|
Fe2O3
|
0.5-6
|
|
MgO
|
0.1-4
|
|
Alkalies (K2O,
N2O)
|
0.4-1.3
|
|
SO3
|
1.3-3
|
Following are the important
properties of good cement, which primarily depend upon its chemical
composition, thoroughness of burning and fineness of grinding.
o
It gives strength to the masonry.
o
It is an excellent binding material.
o
It is easily workable.
o
It offers good resistance to the moisture.
o
It possesses a good plasticity.
o
It stiffens or hardens easily.
Physical Characteristics Of OPC
|
Types
of cement
|
33grade
|
43grade
|
53grade
|
|
|
Finess(m2/kg)Mm
|
225
|
225
|
225
|
|
|
Soundness by
|
Le chatelier (mm) max
|
10
|
10
|
10
|
|
Auto clave (%)max
|
0.8
|
0.8
|
0.8
|
|
|
Setting time
|
Initial(mts)mm
|
30
|
30
|
30
|
|
Final(mts)mm
|
600
|
600
|
600
|
|
|
Compressive strength
|
1day Mpa
|
N.S
|
N.S
|
N.S
|
|
3days Mpa
|
16
|
23
|
27
|
|
|
7days Mpa
|
22
|
33
|
37
|
|
|
28days Npa
|
33
|
43
|
53
|
|
Chemical Characteristics Of OPC
|
Type of cement
|
33grade
|
43grade
|
53grade
|
|
Lime saturation factor (%)
|
0.66Mm
1.02max
|
0.66Mm
1.02Max
|
0.8Mm
1.02max
|
|
Alumina iron ratio (%)Mm
|
0.66
|
0.66
|
0.66
|
|
Insoluble residue
(%)max
|
4
|
2
|
2
|
|
Magnese(%)max
|
6
|
6
|
6
|
|
Sulphuric anhydride
|
2.5% max when C3A is 5
|
2.5% max when C3A is 5
|
2.5% max when C3A is 5
|
|
3% Max when C3A is >5
|
3% Max when C3A is >5
|
3% Max when C3A is >5
|
|
|
Less on ignition(%)max
|
5
|
5
|
4
|
SAND
The sand particle consists of
small grains of silica (SiO2). It is formed by the decomposition of
sand stones due to various effects of weather. According to the natural
resources from which the sand is obtained, it is of the following three types.,
(i) Pit sand
(ii) River sand
(iii) Sea sand
According
to the size of grains, the sand is classified as fine, coarse and gravel. The
sand passing through a screen with clear openings of 1.5875 mm is known as fine
sand. It is mainly used for plastering. The sand passing through a screen with
clear openings of 3.175 mm is known as the coarse sand. It is generally used
for masonry work. The sand passing through a screen with clear openings of 7.62
mm is known as the gravel sand. It is generally used for concrete work.
Properties
The following are the properties of good sand
o
It should be chemically inert.
o
It should be clean and coarse.
o
It should be free from any organic or vegetable
matter. Usually 3- 4% of clay is
permitted.
o It
should contain sharp, angular, coarse and durable grains.
o It
should not contain salts, which attracts moisture from atmosphere.
o
It should be well graded, i.e., it should
contain particle of various sizes in suitable proportion. The fineness modulus
of sand between 2 to 3.
METHODOLOGY
Papercrete
derivatives like fibrous concrete and padobe was used in this project. The
concept of that derivatives are different with each other. Concept of that two
derivatives are given below.
FIBROUS CONCRETE
The
basic idea that initiates this project is the way paper fibres hold Portland
cement or perhaps the Portland cement adheres to paper fibres. When the water
is added to paper and Portland cement drains from the mix, it comes out almost
completely clear. There is no messy and Eco-unfriendly cement sediment left on
the ground, running into waterways etc., papercrete can be produced using solar
energy.
.png)
Papercrete matrix
Paper is principally wood
cellulose. Cellulose is natural polymer. And Fig shows the links of cellulose
bonds. The cellulose chain bristles with polar-OH groups. These groups form
hydrogen bonds with -OH group on adjacent chains, bundling, the chain together.
The chains also pack regularly in places to form hard, stable crystalline
region that give the bundled chains even more stability and strength. This
hydrogen bonding forms the basics of papercrete’s strength. Fig shows the network of cellulose fibres
and smaller offshoots from the fibres called fibrils. Fig shows the papercrete matrix. In this, fibres
and fibrils network forms a matrix, which becomes coated with Portland cement.
When these networks of fibers and fibrils dry, they inter wine and cling
together with the power of hydrogen bond. Coating this fiber with Portland
cement creates a cement matrix, which encases the fibers for extra strength.
Of course paper has more in it than cellulose.
Raw cellulose has comparatively rough texture. Clay, fly ash is added to
make the cellulose very smooth. The great thing about the generic papercrete is
how it traps air. When the water drains out and evaporates, it leaves the
thousands of tiny air pockets. This is what makes the material light and good
insulator.
While adding more sand or glass to the
mix results in a denser, stronger, more flame retardant material, but adds
weight and reduces R- value. Heavy mixes with added sand, glass etc., increases
strength and resistance to abrasion, but also reduces flexibility somewhat,
adds weight and may reduce R-value. So the trick is finding the best mix for
the application.
MANUFACTURING OF BRICKS
There
was no clear past details about the project. And there is no hard procedure for
casting the bricks. So the procedure that is given below was followed by our
own. And the equipment's which were used in this project is for our convenience
only.
MATERIAL COLLECTION
Material Collection/ data collection is the basic and important step in any project. The material that is used in a project should not cause any damage to the environment.
Following materials which were used in this
project, were collected before starting the work. The materials used in
these projects were collected bulky for the whole project, and then only the
project could give the same result.
Paper
Paper is the main resource for doing
this project. Even though there is a lot of sources available to get waste
paper, the paper that was wasted in our college premises were collected. Our
college libraries are the main sources of producing waste papers. Our college
and hostel libraries are getting more than
10 daily newspapers like The Hindu, Deccan Chronicle, The Indian express etc.,
These papers are wasted after some months from their supply date. So these
newspapers were targeted in our project. And the main thing of using newspaper
is, that is the best for producing Papercrete. So The Hindu, Deccan Chronicle,
Dhinamalar newspaper etc., were collected bulky from the libraries and were
used in this project.
Fly Ash
This is the easily available
material from the power plants. In Ennore power plant, which is nearer to our
college, they are dumping huge amount of fly ash as a waste. So, the fly ash
was collected from Ennore power plant. The collected fly ash was dry fly ash
(or) chimney ash. And this ash was taken to the college in a completely closed
airtight bags.
Rice Husk Ash
Rice Husk Ash is the locally available
waste anywhere in Tamilnadu. All the rice mills in Avadi are dumping the rice
husk ash in a low-lying area as a waste. For this project RHA was collected
from a rice mill that is situated in avadi. And it was carried in a completely
closed air tight bags.
Cement
Cement is one of the binding material
in this project. Cement is the important building material in today’s
construction world. It is available in all hardware shops. In this project
ordinary Portland cement of 43 grade was used.
Earth
Earth
is another one binding material that is used in padobe bricks. For producing
padobe bricks, the earth should have clay content more than 30%. So various
samples of earth was collected in our college campus and shake test was
conducted. And finally the earth having clay content 44.44% was used. The following figure shows
the shake test.
.png)
Shake test
The following
steps will explain how the shake test was conducted.
o
First the rock and small stones were removed
from the earth.
o
Then the organic matter that was present in the
earth was removed.
o
A vertical sided transparent vertical one-liter
plastic jar was taken.
o
Then the two third of jar was filled with water
and the remaining was filled with earth.
o
Then the jar was shaked vigorously for two
minutes and then allowed for rest.
o
First the sand and heavier particles settled
down immediately.
o
Above that, silt settled down in a few minutes
to several hours.
o
At last the clay settled on the top of the silt
within several hours to 24hours.
o
Then the total height of deposit was measured.
This was denoted as ‘h’.
o
After that, the height of the clay deposit was
measured. That was denoted as ‘hc’.
o
Then the
clay content was calculated by this formula
% of clay = (hc/h)
x 100
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